Intestinal flora is the main producer of acetic acid
The Acetic Acid & Ethanoic Acid content in human cells is usually low. After entering the cells, it is converted into other substances by acetyl coenzyme A.
Although acetic acid is also contained in food, its content depends on the type of food and its contribution to the overall acetic acid is limited. Acetogenic bacteria in the intestines are the primary producers of acetic acid. They use anaerobic fermentation as their main way to make acetic acid, which is essential for their survival.
In the colon, bacteria break down undigested cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin from food. This process, called fermentation, mainly creates short-chain fatty acids like acetic, propionic, and butyric acid, along with carbon dioxide and hydrogen. About 95% of the short-chain fatty acids are absorbed and utilized by the human body. Studies have shown that 10 to 30 grams of acetic acid are produced by specialized acetogenic bacteria in the short-chain fatty acids produced every day.
Unique metabolic pathways of acetogenic bacteria
Acetogenic bacteria create acetic acid using two primary biological pathways: direct sugar metabolism, where they process polysaccharides or monosaccharides that come from the breakdown of other bacteria. Taking glucose as an example, pyruvate and reduced hydrogen are produced through glycolysis, and then acetic acid is finally formed through a series of reactions. It is worth noting that one molecule of glucose can produce three molecules of acetic acid.
Using hydrogen and carbon dioxide: Acetogens have the ability to create acetic acid through the acetyl-CoA path, which uses hydrogen and carbon dioxide made by other gut bacteria. This process is particularly important for maintaining the balance of intestinal microecology.
The energy acquisition method of acetogens is also very special. When metabolizing sugars, they can obtain ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation and establish a transmembrane proton gradient to generate additional energy. When using hydrogen and carbon dioxide, they rely entirely on ion concentration gradients to synthesize ATP.
Competition and balance among intestinal flora
In the human intestine, acetogens do not exist in isolation. They have a complex competitive relationship with methanogens, sulfate-reducing bacteria, etc. Studies have found that people with more methanogens usually have fewer acetogens. This negative correlation exists in different species, including humans, sheep and rats.
This competition is mainly because both types of bacteria need to consume hydrogen as a substrate. The competition explains why acetogens’ use of hydrogen is key in areas where there are not many methanogens. It is estimated that acetogens in the human digestive tract can produce about 10 billion kg of acetic acid from hydrogen and carbon dioxide each year. Acetogens show a varied taxonomic distribution, mostly within the Firmicutes phylum, but also in Spirochaetes and Acidobacteria. This diversity means that different antibiotics have different effects on acetogens, depending on the specific species and type of antibiotic.
In addition to acetogens in the strict sense, there are many other bacteria in the intestine that can also produce acetate, but in different ways. Certain bacteria, for instance, create acetate by using hydrogen ions, not carbon dioxide, to accept electrons. Symtrophomonas worderi, for another instance, is capable of turning butyrate into acetate and hydrogen. Bacteria can also convert lactate into acetate when oxygen is present.
The creation pathways for acetate collaborate to keep a steady supply within the human body. Several things change the acetate level in the gut, like diet, antibiotics, and the mix of bacteria in a person’s gut. Knowing how these things work together helps keep the gut healthy.
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